托福閱讀真題Official 46 Passage 1（四）

托福閱讀真題Official 46 Passage 1（四）

The Origin of Writing

It was in Egypt and Mesopotamia(modern-day Iraq)that civilization arose,and it is there that we find the earliest examples of that key feature of civilization,writing.These examples,in the form of inscribed clay tablets that date to shortly before 3000 B.C.E.,have been discovered among the archaeological remains of the Sumerians,a gifted people settled in southern Mesopotamia.

The Egyptians were not far behind in developing writing,but we cannot follow the history of their writing in detail because they used a perishable writing material.In ancient times the banks of the Nile were lined with papyrus plants,and from the papyrus reeds the Egyptians made a form of paper;it was excellent in quality but,like any paper,fragile.Mesopotamia’s rivers boasted no such useful reeds,but its land did provide good clay,and as a consequence the clay tablet became the standard material.Though clumsy and bulky it has a virtue dear to archaeologists:it is durable.Fire,for example,which is death to papyrus paper or other writing materials such as leather and wood,simply bakes it hard,thereby making it even more durable.So when a conqueror set a Mesopotamian palace ablaze,he helped ensure the survival of any clay tablets in it.Clay,moreover,is cheap,and forming it into tablets is easy,factors that helped the clay tablet become the preferred writing material not only throughout Mesopotamia but far outside it as well,in Syria,Asia Minor,Persia,and even for a while in Crete and Greece.Excavators have unearthed clay tablets in all these lands.In the Near East they remained in use for more than two and a half millennia,and in certain areas they lasted down to the beginning of the common era until finally yielding,once and for all,to more convenient alternatives.

The Sumerians perfected a style of writing suited to clay.This script consists of simple shapes,basically just wedge shapes and lines that could easily be incised in soft clay with a reed or wooden stylus;scholars have dubbed it cuneiform from the wedge-shaped marks(cunei in Latin)that are its hallmark.Although the ingredients are merely wedges and lines,there are hundreds of combinations of these basic forms that stand for different sounds or words.Learning these complex signs required long training and much practice;inevitably,literacy was largely limited to a small professional class,the scribes.

The Akkadians conquered the Sumerians around the middle of the third millennium B.C.E.,and they took over the various cuneiform signs used for writing Sumerian and gave them sound and word values that fit their own language.The Babylonians and Assyrians did the same,and so did peoples in Syria and Asia Minor.The literature of the Sumerians was treasured throughout the Near East,and long after Sumerian ceased to be spoken,the Babylonians and Assyrians and others kept it alive as a literary language,the way Europeans kept Latin alive after the fall of Rome.For the scribes of these non-Sumerian languages,training was doubly demanding since they had to know the values of the various cuneiform signs for Sumerian as well as for their own language.

The contents of the earliest clay tablets are simple notations of numbers of commodities—animals,jars,baskets,etc.Writing,it would appear,started as a primitive form of bookkeeping.Its use soon widened to document the multitudinous things and acts that are involved in daily life,from simple inventories of commodities to complicated governmental rules and regulations.

Archaeologists frequently find clay tablets in batches.The batches,some of which contain thousands of tablets,consist for the most part of documents of the types just mentioned:bills,deliveries,receipts,inventories,loans,marriage contracts,divorce settlements,court judgments,and so on.These records of factual matters were kept in storage to be available for reference—they were,in effect,files,or,to use the term preferred by specialists in the ancient Near East,archives.Now and then these files include pieces of writing that are of a distinctly different order,writings that do not merely record some matter of fact but involve creative intellectual activity.They range from simple textbook material to literature—and they make an appearance very early,even from the third millennium B.C.E.

Question 7 of 14

According to paragraph 4,how did the Akkadians use the Sumerian language?

A.They used Sumerian for speaking but used their own national language for writing.

B.They used the complex cuneiform signs developed by the Babylonians and Assyrians rather than the Sumerian signs.

C.They developed their own cuneiform shapes on clay tablets to replace those used by the Sumerians.

D.They assigned new sound and word values to the signs of Sumerian cuneiform.

正確答案：D

題目詳解

題型分類(lèi)：事實(shí)信息題

原文定位：從題干中選取定位詞Akkadians和the Sumerian language，那么可以定位到原文的第一句話(huà)的后半句Akkadians conquered the Sumerians...they took over the various cuneiform signs used for writing Sumerian and gave them sound and word values that fit their own language阿卡德人收錄了多樣式的蘇美爾楔形文字，并各位它們賦予了發(fā)音和文字意義，從而適用于他們自己的語(yǔ)言。

選項(xiàng)分析：

D選項(xiàng)符合原文文意，正確答案。

A選項(xiàng)與原文的表述相矛盾。

B選項(xiàng)張冠李戴，后文中所涉及的巴比倫人和亞述人Babylonians and Assyrians對(duì)于楔形文字的使用和阿卡德人并無(wú)關(guān)。

C選項(xiàng)無(wú)中生有，阿卡德人并沒(méi)有發(fā)展自己的楔形文字樣式。

Question 8 of 14

Paragraph 4 answers all the following questions about Sumerian writing in the period after the Sumerians were conquered EXCEPT:

A.Did Sumerian literature continue to be read?

B.Did Sumerian continue to be spoken?

C.Did scribes compose new texts in Sumerian?

D.Did Sumerian have the same fate as Latin had after the fall of Rome?

正確答案：C

題目詳解

題型分類(lèi)：否定事實(shí)信息題

原文定位：題干中問(wèn)“蘇美爾人的文字在其被征戰(zhàn)后所處的地位”如何，根據(jù)題干信息定位到第四段的第3句話(huà)。

選項(xiàng)分析：

Sumerian writing的同義替換為the literature of the Sumerians，根據(jù)該語(yǔ)段我們可以得知：1.蘇美爾人的文獻(xiàn)是被珍視的；2.巴比倫二五年、亞述人及其他人將其再次利用起來(lái)且作文書(shū)面文字；3.將此情況和拉丁語(yǔ)在歐洲的境遇做了對(duì)比。C選項(xiàng)為正確答案，因?yàn)樵牟](méi)有對(duì)蘇美爾文字的抄錄中對(duì)其有新的改動(dòng)和構(gòu)成。

A選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)題干分析中的第1點(diǎn)。

B選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)題干分析中的第2點(diǎn)。

D選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)題干分析中的第3點(diǎn)。

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